AUTHOR’S PRUDENCE
by Antonio C. Antonio
February 3, 2014
The book “Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Current
State and Trends” really discussed a lot of interesting scientific findings and
observations. The authors, contributors and editors line up is also
impressive. It’s quite a lengthy read but please allow me to focus on a
particular section: Chapter 24, Mountain Systems, Social and Economic
Conditions. I’ve taken the liberty of re-printing the entire section…
“ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WEL-BEING: CURRENT STATE AND
TRENDS
Chapter 24 – MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS
Coordinating Lead Authors: Christian
Korner, Masahiko Ohsawa
Lead Authors: Eva
Spehn, Erling Berge, Harald Bugmann, Brian Groombridge, Lawrence Hamilton,
Thomas Hofer, Jack Ives, Narpat Jodha, Bruno Messerli, Jane Pratt, Martin
Price, Mel Reasoner, Alan Rodgers, Jillian Thonell, Masatoshi Yoshino
Contributing Authors: Jill
Baron, Roger Barry, Jules Blais, Ray Bradley, Robert Hofstede, Valerie Kapos,
Peter Leavitt, Russell Monson, Laszlo Nagy, David Schindler, Rolf Vinebrooke,
Teiji Watanabe
Review Editors: Blair
Fitzharris, Kedar Shrestha
24.1.4 Social and Economic Conditions
Twenty percent of the world’s population—about 1.2
billion people—live in mountains. Most of them inhabit lower montane elevations,
and almost half are concentrated in the Asia-Pacific region. Of the 8%
living above 2,500 meters, almost all—about 90 million—live in poverty and are
considered highly vulnerable to food insecurity. However, they have significant
impact on larger populations living at lower elevations through their
influence on catchments.
Low temperatures become prohibitive for people
above 2,000 meters in temperate latitudes and above 3,500 meters in tropical
latitudes (although there are exceptions up to 4,200 m), and human
activities rarely occur above 4,500 meters. Special efforts and techniques are
required to sustain agricultural production at altitudes close to the upper
tree line level.
There are many historical examples of flourishing
mountain economies based on mountain ecosystem services (including Berbers,
Afghan and Caucasian tribes, Tibetans, Mongolians, Highland Papuas, Incas, and
Aztecs), and many of these cultures still survive and in some cases even
thrive. Lowland economies have generally dominated, however, because of
intensive sedentary agriculture, manufacturing based on larger scales, easier
transportation and trade, urbanization and associated better education,
and the broader reach of common language and culture.
In most parts of the world, mountain areas are
perceived as economically backward and culturally inferior. But there are some
exceptions. In industrial countries, mountain areas have been rapidly
transformed economically with improved access and the proliferation of
recreational activities. In Africa, for instance, highland areas that grow tea
and other high-value crops are more prosperous than lowlands. More often,
however, mountain resources are extracted without benefit to local communities
in order to support lowland economies, thereby contributing to the further
marginalization of mountain people. Where extractive industries have been
developed, mountain communities have often become dependent on wages for their
livelihoods, and asset values and rents are usually allocated elsewhere.
With notable exceptions, particularly in areas
where tourism and amenities migration (the movement of people because of a
perceived high incidence of attractive or cultural resources) have created
pockets of wealth, mountain communities suffer disproportionately from poverty
and often lack even basic social services such as education and health care
facilities. This, in part, has caused a counter movement in several mountain
areas (the Andes and Himalayas) that is strongly linked to control over
mountain resources (such as the movement of water in Bolivia). Mountain
communities are also insufficiently recognized as rich reservoirs of traditional
knowledge and cultural and spiritual resources.”
The conduct of a study or research for the purpose
of completing a book entails serious and diligent detailed work. From the
different information, generalizations are extracted. Chapter 24,
Mountain System – Social and Economic Conditions, of the book is also full of
these generalizations. The statement that “mountain areas are perceived
as economically backward and culturally inferior” does not seem to be
accurate. Of course, for safe measure, the authors also stated: “But
there are some exceptions.” In the Philippine setting, I would readily
agree that mountain areas are “economically backward” but would seriously
disagree that upland communities are “culturally inferior.”
There are numerous tribal groups in the
Philippines. Usually living in remote and isolated areas, they have
managed to retain most of their cultural traits. Some of these distinct
tribal groups are:
1.
The Igorots who are primarily located in the
highlands of the Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR).
2.
The Ilongots who are a head-hunting tribal group
living in the Caraballo Mountains.
3.
The Lumads of the Island of Mindanao composed of
several tribes like the Manobo, the Tasaday, the Mamanwa, the Mandaya, the
Bilaan and the Kalagan who inhabit the uplands of the Caraga and Davao regions.
4.
The Mangyans of Mindoro Island.
5.
The Palawan tribes which are a diverse group of
tribes inhabiting the elongated strip of Palawan.
6.
The Negrito, Aeta and Batak tribal groups which are
spread all over the Philippine archipelago.
7.
The Kagayanen tribe which also live in Palawan.
8.
The Molbog tribe which can be found in Balabak
Island and other islands in the Palawan group of islands.
9.
The Tausug tribe in western Mindanao.
10. The
Tagbanwa tribe who are also scattered in different islands in the Philippines.
11. The
Taaw’t Bato (people of the rock) is another distinct tribal unit in Palawan.
12. The
Tumandok tribe which inhabit the Island of Panay.
Due to the steady increase in the population of
tribal groups, they, especially the younger ones, have a tendency to migrate to
the urban areas in search for livelihood and employment opportunities. In
this migration, they mix and integrate with different cultures in a process
called acculturation. Acculturation explains the process of cultural and
psychological change that results a meeting between cultures. The effects
of acculturation can be seen at multiple levels in both interacting
cultures.
Acculturation often results in changes in culture,
customs and social institutions. Noticeable effects of acculturation
often include changes in food, clothing, and language. At the individual
level, differences in the way individuals acculturate have been shown to be
associated not just with changes in daily behavior, but with numerous measures
of psychological and physical well-being. Cultural assimilation is the
end result of acculturation. This occurs when there is a fusion of
cultures so much so that we can hardly tell which cultural traits came from
which culture.
The process of cultural adaptation, acculturation
and assimilation have somewhat diluted the culture, custom and tradition with
the members of migrant tribal groups. However, the original upland and
coastal tribal communities where they come from still maintain the strong
foundations of traditional cultural traits of the different ethnic groups in
the Philippines. The fact remains that the pure cultural traits,
untouched by influence of modern society, are still evident and strong in these
remote and isolated tribal communities. It’s quite evident that the
authors failed to conduct a deeper research and study in the Philippine setting
where tribal groups are numerous and exhibit strong (however diverse)
traditional customs, traits and cultures. Again, the authors should be
mistaken in stating that these upland communities are “culturally
inferior.”
Just my little thoughts…
