Acculturation

ACCULTURATION

by Antonio C. Antonio

March 9, 2015

Every society has its own distinct culture.  Constant exposure to other cultures will cause different cultures to influence each other or even fuse to form another culture or sub-culture.  This long-term exposure could lead to either acculturation or assimilation.  Acculturation is more likely to happen when societies share common and mutual traits or identify themselves with the same collective goals and aspirations.

Acculturation is a process in which members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs and behaviour of another group.  Acculturation is, as a more common description, the borrowing of specific cultural traits between two distinct societies.  It explains the process of cultural and psychological changes that results following the meeting of two or more cultures.  Such cultural and psychological changes often results in changes to culture, customs, and social institutions.  Common apparent changes come in the form of food, clothing, and language.

The concept of acculturation finds relevant application in the fields of psychology, anthropology and sociology.  Environmental science, being multi-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary by nature, traverses these fields.  It is also said that environment and man are inseparable and interdependent elements in an ecosystem.  Socio-cultural concepts are therefore important to consider in environment and natural resources management studies; specifically, but not limited to, the concept of acculturation.

Just my little thoughts…

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Protected Areas Land Use Zoning

PROTECTED AREAS LAND USE ZONING

by Antonio C. Antonio

March 26, 2015

The NIPAS Act of 1992, otherwise known as Republic Act No. 7586 is an act providing for the establishment and management of national integrated protected areas system, defining its scope and coverage, (and for other purposes).  This law prescribes the criteria for classifying the land within the Republic into zones.  In the classifying the zones, the following considerations are used such as the demographic characteristics of the area, land use, vegetation, streams, soil, topography and terrain.  To preserve the accuracy and integrity of the information, the following categories were lifted in full from the book “Management of Protected Areas.”  There zones are:

1. Strict Protection Zone – areas with high biodiversity value which shall be closed to all human activity except for scientific studies and/or ceremonial or religious use by indigenous communities.  Usually, this zone includes old growth forest which under the law should be protected from any form of exploitation, those presently inhabited by rare or endangered species, areas with critical slopes which are susceptible to erosion or landslides.
2. Sustainable Use Zone – natural areas where habitat and its associated biodiversity shall be conserved but where consistent with management plan and with the protected area management board approval.  It usually includes secondary or logged-over forest areas where selective harvesting of trees can be allowed.
3. Restoration Zone – areas of degraded habitat where the long term goal will be to restore natural habitat with its associated biodiversity and to rezone the area to a more strict protection level.  It usually includes denuded or heavily deforested areas that should be revegetated to prevent adverse environmental consequences.
4. Habitat Management Zones – areas with significant habitat and species values where management practices are required periodically to maintain specific non-climax habitat types or conditions required by rare, threatened or endangered species.  It includes areas that can serve as potential habitat or sanctuary for wildlife species.
5. Multiple-Use Zones – areas where settlement, traditional and/or sustainable land use, including agriculture, agroforestry, extraction activities and other income generating or livelihood activities, may be allowed to the extent prescribed in the management plan.  It includes areas where communities and settlers are usually found.
6. Buffer Zone – areas outside the protected area but adjoining it that are established by law and under the control of the DENR (Department of Environment and Natural Resources).  It serves as transition zone between the protected and populated areas.  It serves as an invisible fence between the protected area and adjoining areas.  It provides the spatial line of defense against destructive agents.
7. Cultural Zones – areas with significant cultural, religious, spiritual, or anthropological values where traditional rights exist and ceremonies and/or cultural practices take place.
8. Recreational Zones – areas of high recreational, tourism, educational, or environmental awareness values where sustainable eco-tourism, recreational, conservation education or public awareness activities may be allowed as prescribed in the management plan.
9. Special Use Zones – areas containing existing installations of national significance such as telecommunications facilities, irrigation canals or electric power lines.  Such installations may be retained subject to mutual agreements among concerned parties, provided such installation will not violate any prohibitions contained in the act.

Before the actual planning of possible programs or projects in an area, these zoning categories will have to be considered so as the planning effort is not wasted.  Among other considerations, awareness of these planning and management considerations is important… therefore, Protected Areas Land Use Zoning.

Just my little thoughts…

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REFERENCES:

Bantayan, N. C., Cereno, R. P., Cruz, R. V. D., Racelis, D. A., & Villanueva, T. R., (2001).

Management of protected areas. University of the Philippines Open University, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines

Republic Act No. 7586, (1992). An act providing for the establishment and management of

national integrated protected areas system, defining its scope and coverage, and for other purposes.  Republic of the Philippines, Malacanang Palace, Manila, Philippines

Causes of Forest Loss and Degradation

CAUSES OF FOREST LOSS AND DEGRADATION

by Antonio C. Antonio

March 27, 2015

Loss of forest cover is defines as a stand-replacement disturbance or a change from a forest to a non-forest state. On the other hand, forest degradation is broadly defined as a reduction in the capacity of a forest to produce ecosystem services such as carbon storage and wood products as a result of anthropogenic interventions and environmental changes.

Causes of forest loss and degradation are usually categorized into direct and underlying or root causes.  There really is a big debate and diverse worldviews on which causes (direct or root) account for forest loss and degradation.  These will be enumerated below but please note that the identification of the causes subsequently implies the solution.

The roots causes of forest loss and degradation are a combination socio-economic and political in nature.  These are:

•  Poverty;
• Uncontrolled population growth;
• Market and trade systems for forest products; and,
• Macroeconomic policies.

The direct causes of forest loss and degradation can be attributed to land use applications.  These direct causes are responsible for habitat degradation, which along with overharvesting of wildlife, leads to reduction of wildlife populations.  These are:

• Overharvesting of forest products;
• Poor management of production forests;
• Overgrazing;
• Fire and other natural calamities;
• Insect pests and diseases;
• Extreme climactic phenomena; and,
• Air pollution.

These causes (enumerated above) are the root and direct causes of forest loss and degradation.

Just my little thoughts…

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Watershed Policy Intervention

WATERSHED POLICY INTERVENTION

by Antonio C. Antonio

March 18, 2015

We live in a democratic system where we are guided by laws, rules and regulations, and public policies.  This system of public governance applies not only the lowlands but to the uplands as well.

“Watershed management is the study of the relevant characteristics of a watershed aimed at the sustainable distribution of its resources and the process of creating and implementing plans, programs and projects to sustain and enhance watershed functions that affect the plant, animal and human communities within the watershed boundary.  The features of a watershed that can be the subject to management include water supply, water quality, drainage, stormwater runoff and water rights.”  (Antonio, 2015)  In the management of watershed projects, after periodic and timely assessments may find the need for technical watershed management interventions.  Technical  watershed management interventions are those field level activities that aim to: (1) Change the type of land use enterprise(s) being undertaken; and/or, (2) Change one or more of the component management practices associated with a particular land use enterprise (FMB/DENR, 1998).

Watershed policy interventions are sometimes necessary to change the prevailing policy environment so as to facilitate the adoption of improved field level watershed management practices.  Watershed policy intervention should be designed to (FMB/DENR, 1998):

1. Eliminate possible conflicts between policies designed to promote short-term production and those designed to encourage long-term sustainability (conservation).
2. Acknowledge, and to the extent possible, accommodate the diverse perspectives and development priorities of the different stakeholders --- therefore, individual households, rural communities (both indigenous peoples and lowland migrants), sawmill owners, commercial forestry/agriculture companies, urban dwellers, and the government or society as a whole.
3.  Reconcile national land use planning goals for the reservation of a specific proportion of the country’s land area for a permanent forest estate, biodiversity preservation, water source and infrastructure protection, etc., with the biological realities and economic development priorities of individual provinces, municipalities, barangays and sitios.
4. Avoid inequitable development within individual watershed --- therefore, policy designed to promote watershed protection should not impose unacceptable social and economic costs on upstream communities for the primary benefit of those downstream (users of irrigation water, hydro-electricity consumers, etc.).
5. Enable individual rural households and communities to take responsibility for sustainably managing the natural resources at their disposal, which can be achieved through passing of appropriate enabling legislation (rather than coercive enforcement) and the adoption of a participatory appraisal and planning approach to forestry/agricultural development. 

6.    Positively encourage,via appropriate private and indirect incentives, adoption of strategies that conserve the environment for use by future generations.

Where watershed management plans should need for technical watershed management interventions, the next best and ideal option is watershed policy intervention.

Just my little thoughts…

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REFERENCES:

Antonio, A. C., (2015).  Watershed Management.  Retrieved on the 17^th day of March 2015 from

 http://antonantonio.blogspot.com/2015/03/watershed-management.html

DOST-DENR-DA-UPLB-CFND. (1999). Guidelines for Watershed Management and

 Development in the Philippines. Los Banos, Laguna.

FMB, DENR. (1998).  The Philippine Strategy for Improved Watershed Resources

 Management. Quezon City, Philippines

Types of Ecological Succession

TYPES OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

by Antonio C. Antonio

March 22, 2015

“What is ecological succession?  Ecological succession is a natural process of change in the species (fauna and flora) structure of an ecological community over a period of time.  The process begins with a few pioneering animals and plants and a long-drawn sequence of morphology which ultimately results to a climax community of living elements in an ecosystem.  I remember having written an article entitled “Ecological Succession” published on http://antonantonio.blogspot.com/ before.  In this article, I mentioned:  “There have been a few disturbances in the Philippine landscape in the last 25 years that could be considered as primary succession.  Notable among which is the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in 1991 that covered most of Central Luzon with ash.  The subsequent lahar that changed the flow/stream of the river systems in Tarlac, Pampanga and Zambales can also be included in this disturbance regime.  But if we visit these places now, there is hardly a trace of Mt. Pinatubo’s devastating eruption.  Other forms of disturbance --- floods, landslides and storm surge --- can be considered secondary succession since the presence of soil, which is the primary catalyst for ecological succession, still exists.” (Antonio, 2014)

“There have been a few disturbances in the Philippine landscape in the last 25 years that could be considered as primary succession.  Notable among which is the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in 1991 that covered most of Central Luzon with ash.  The subsequent lahar that changed the flow/stream of the river systems in Tarlac, Pampanga and Zambales can also be included in this disturbance regime.  But if we visit these places now, there is hardly a trace of Mt. Pinatubo’s devastating eruption.  Other forms of disturbance --- floods, landslides and storm surge --- can be considered secondary succession since the presence of soil, which is the primary catalyst for ecological succession, is still present.”  (Antonio, 2014)

What are the types of ecological succession?  They are primary and secondary successions.  Primary succession is of biological and ecological succession of plant life, occurring in an environment in which new substrate devoid of vegetation and usually lacking soil, such as a lava flow or areas left from retreated glacier, is deposited.  Primary succession develops on an area where plant life never before existed such as areas covered by lava flow or newly formed islands resulting from geological upliftment.  After these new areas are colonized by plant life, but disturbed, succession will now be secondary… therefore, secondary succession.  Secondary succession, therefore, is a series of community changes which take place on a previously colonized, but disturbed or damaged habitat.  Disturbances after the primary succession mostly come from or are the results of anthropogenic (meaning: man-made) factors.  Primary and secondary successions are the two types of ecological succession.

Just my little thoughts…

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REFERENCES:

Antonio, A. C., (2014). Ecological Succession (Part 2). Retrieved on the 22^nd day of March 2015 from http://antonantonio.blogspot.com/2014/07/ecological-succession-part-2.html

Antonio, A. C,. (2014) Ecological Siccession. Retrieved on the 22^nd day of March 2015 from http://antonantonio.blogspot.com/search?q=ecological+succession

The Law of Diminishing Returns

THE LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURNS

by Antonio C. Antonio

March 16, 2015

If the input of one resource is increased by equal increments per unit of time while the quantities of other inputs are held constant, there will be some point beyond which the marginal physical product of the variable resource will decrease (Leftwich, 1979).  To those of us who have no economics background, this definition of the Law of Diminishing Returns is quite technical and, therefore, tough to understand in the mind of an average person.

Let’s try to keep it simple… There are several definitions of the Law of Diminishing Returns:

• The tendency for a continuing application of effort or skill toward a particular project or goal to decline in effectiveness after a certain level of results has been achieved.
• A law affirming that to continue after a certain level of performance has been reached will result in a decline in effectiveness.
• An economic law stating that if one input in the production of a commodity is increased while all other inputs are held fixed, a point will eventually be reached at which additions of the input yield progressively smaller, or diminishing, increases in output.

A concept in economics that if one factor (labor, for example) of production is increased while other factors (say: machines and workspace) are held constant, the output per unit of the variable factor will eventually diminish.  Although the marginal productivity of the workforce decreases as output increases, diminishing returns do not mean negative returns until the number of workers exceeds the available machines or workspace.  If additional labor is hired, the combination of workspace and workforce would be less efficient because the proportional increase in the overall output would be less than the expansion of the labor force.  The output per worker will therefore decrease.  This rule holds true in any process of production unless the production infrastructure and technique also changes.

In the case of the uplands, natural resources needs time to regenerate.  Increasing the production output without enhancing the regeneration capability of the land will eventually not be sustainable.  The Law of Diminishing Returns only applies to renewable resources under the ambit of sustainable development.

The accompanying photo in this article is a graphic illustration of the Law of Diminishing Returns.

Just my little thoughts…

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Aims of Watershed Management

AIMS OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

by Antonio C. Antonio

March 10, 2015

Watershed management is a means of protecting a lake, river, or stream by managing the entire watershed that drains into it.  The health and cleanliness of watersheds largely depend on an informed citizenry to make the right decisions when it comes to the environment and actions and interventions made and still to be made by the community on the watershed.

While 70% of the earth’s surface is covered by water, 40 to 50% of inland water bodies are considered impaired or threatened.  A water body is considered impaired when it cannot support one or more of its natural functions such as drinking water, recreation or marine life habitat.  When we talk of watershed resources, we should highlight that the more important and basic elements are the natural (therefore, resources that are used by humans) and the human resources themselves.

What are the aims of watershed management?  Watershed management is a process involving the planning and implementation of both technical and policy initiatives to enable the natural and human resources of each watershed to contribute to one, or more of the following development aims (DENR-FMB, 1998):

1. Improve standard of living through livelihood opportunities that wholly or partly depend upon utilization of watershed resources;
2. Improve management of biodiversity;
3. Improve management of watershed resources enabling them to be used for economically productive purposes on a sustainable basis while maintaining and enhancing their social and environmental service functions; and,
4. Improve rainwater management so as to: (a) Provide water of the quality and quantity required and at the time needed; and (b) Provide human settlements, lowland farmlands/irrigation systems, power generation and transport infrastructure, fish ponds and coral reefs/coastal resources downstream of the watershed, with increased protection from damage by floods and sedimentation. (Villanueva, 2002)

These are the critical aims of watershed management.

Just my little thoughts…

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REFERENCE:

Villanueva, T. R., (2002).  Upland Ecosystem Management (2^nd Edition).  University of the Philippines Open University

Community Based Forest Management

COMMUNITY BASED FOREST MANAGEMENT

by Antonio C. Antonio

March 22, 2015

The concept, definition and operational character of the Community Based Forest Management program can be deduced from the following researched materials authored by Teodoro R. Villanueva and Antonio C. Antonio…

“Community based forest management (CBFM) is a program that addresses the continuing destruction of our remaining natural forests as well as responds to the issue of upland poverty, considered as one of the root causes of the country’s deforestation problem.

CBFM is based on the concept of “People first and sustainable forestry will follow.”  It gives organized and empowered communities the right and responsibility to directly manage and benefit from forest land resources.

The government believes that when the issues of poverty and inequitable access to resources in the uplands are addressed, local communities themselves will participate in protecting and managing the forests.

CBFM is an important response to forest destruction.  The continuous destruction of our forests is triggered not only by the physical cutting of the trees, but is driven by the extreme poverty suffered by our upland people, many of whom turn to unsustainable forest practices for survival.  (Villanueva, 2002)

“The CBFM concept is a workable one.  There are several CBFM projects in the Caraga Region that worked and are continually providing benefits for the stakeholders involved.  If at all there are failures it is because there are fundamental flaws such as the lack of technical skills, capital, and linkages to financial institutions.

The CBFM, from the business standpoint, should have the following basic requisites to succeed as a business venture: (1) Management; (2) Manpower; (3) Material; (4) Market; and (5) Money (or financial capability)... the 5 “Ms”.  From the problems already mentioned (therefore: “the lack of technical skills, capital, and linkages to financial institutions”), it seems apparent that the problem is in Nos. 1 (Management) and 5 (Money).

No. 1 (Management) should relatively be the easiest to solve since it only entails a “good choice” of manager.  No. 2 (Manpower) should provide the solution.  From the ranks of those attached to and allied with the CBFM organization, someone should be able to fill up the top managerial position.  Someone who could meet the expectations of all stakeholders.  In case no one makes the grade from within the organization, the appointment of an outsider will be the next best option.

One of the 5 “Ms” also presents a solution to problem No. 5 (Money).  The demand for timber and wood products will always be good considering its dwindling supply.  So long as the CBFM has No. 3 (Material), (in this case timber, wood and other forest products,) it could be used to gain financial resources to fund its operations.  The giving of “advance payments” is an accepted wood industry practice in the Philippines.  So long as the buyer (supposed to be another stakeholder) is assured of the supply of the good, he will be more than willing to advance payments.  Another strength of the CBFM organization is the fact that wood and timber products is considered a seller’s market... and therefore, the CBFM has the option to maximize selling prices within the limits of what the buyer can afford and is willing to buy.  The CBFM management, however, should also make certain that their buyer/s has/have legitimate Wood Processing Permits (WPP) issued by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)... or else, the transaction will be deemed illegal.”  (Antonio, 2014)

CBFM, like other worthy government upland development programs, is a laudable one.  It is only in the implementation stage where the CBFM (together with other government programs) fail.  Given good managers and management practices, success can be guaranteed for program: Community Based Forest Management.

Just my little thoughts…

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REFERENCES:

Antonio, A. C., (2014). CBFM and Participatory Management. Retrieved on the 20^th day of March 2015 from http://antonantonio.blogspot.com/search?q=CBFM

Villanueva, T. R., (2002). Upland Ecosystem Management (2^nd Edition). University of the Philippines Open University, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines

Four Ecological Zones in the Tropics

FOUR ECOLOGICAL ZONES IN THE TROPICS

by Antonio C. Antonio

March 20, 2015

A forest is a forest, period.  Most people cannot distinguish forest types in the ecological zones of the tropics.  This short article will attempt to classify tropical forests…

1. TROPICAL RAIN FOREST – A tropical rain forest is and ecosystem type found in the latitudes of 28 degrees north or south of the equator; in the equatorial zone between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn where most forest areas could be found.  The tropical rain forest is a forest of tall trees in a region of usually year-round warm climate with an average rainfall of 100 inches per year.  An average of 50 to 260 inches of rainfall is expected every year.  This ecosystem experiences high average temperatures… higher than 34 degrees Celsius or below 20 degrees Celsius.  Rainforests now cover only 6 percent of the earth’s land surface where it is estimated that more than half of the world’s plant and animal species live.  The biggest life-support function of the tropical rainforest is the production of 40 percent of the earth’s oxygen.
2. TROPICAL MOIST FOREST – Tropical moist forests or tropical moist deciduous forests receive unusually high overall rainfall with a warm summer, a wet season and a cooler winter dry season.  This type of forest could be found in parts of South America, in Central America, in the Caribbean, in coastal West Africa, in parts of the Indian subcontinent, the Indochina region, and across Southeast Asia.  In character, a tropical moist forest can be compared with the tropical rain forest.
3. TROPICAL DRY FOREST – A tropical dry forest typically experiences an annual hard dry season.  Although the average rainfall is sufficient to promote the growth of trees, these tree and plant species have developed the capability to withstand low levels of moisture and precipitation.  The tree species found in tropical dry forests are also deciduous and, like the trees found in tropical moist forest, drop their leaves on the driest period of the year to compensate for and reduce the need of trees for water.  Some tropical dry forests, mostly in Mexico and Central America, have been converted to grazing areas where exotic grasses are grown to support the cattle raising.
4.  TROPICAL MOUNTAIN FOREST – Tropical mountain forests are found in the upper boundary of the rain forest.  They usually consist of evergreen species and characterized by the presence of treelike ferns and some conifers found in mountains at more than 800-meter elevation or above sea level.  Tropical mountain forests are commonly called cloud forests.

Upland resources management, it makes perfect sense to also study and understand the different types of tropical forests in the four ecological zones in the tropics.

Just my little thoughts…

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Watershed Management Interventions

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT INTERVENTIONS

by Antonio C. Antonio

March 17, 2015

“Watershed management is the study of the relevant characteristics of a watershed aimed at the sustainable distribution of its resources and the process of creating and implementing plans, programs and projects to sustain and enhance watershed functions that affect the plant, animal and human communities within the watershed boundary.  The features of a watershed that can be the subject to management include water supply, water quality, drainage, stormwater runoff and water rights.”  (Antonio, 2015)

Technical watershed management interventions are those field level activities that aim to (FMB/DENR, 1998):

1. Change the type of land use enterprise(s) being undertaken – the objective of the intervention is to replace those land uses that are unsuitable (non- suitable), according to the bio-physical and socio-economic circumstances of the watershed, with ones that are suitable (therefore, replacing annual crops on steep hillsides with perennial tree crops); or,
2. Change one or more of the component management practices associated with a particular land use enterprise – the objective of the intervention is to correct inappropriate land management practices so that with appropriate management, the land use enterprise becomes sustainable (therefore, from clear felling to selective logging, or from ploughing up and down the slope to cultivating on the contour).

Sound management entails an effective oversight function.  Periodic and timely assessment of watershed management plans should be made to ascertain if there is a need for technical watershed management interventions.

Just my little thoughts…

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REFERENCES:

Antonio, A. C., (2015).  Watershed Management.  Retrieved on the 17^th day of March 2015 from

 http://antonantonio.blogspot.com/2015/03/watershed-management.html

DOST-DENR-DA-UPLB-CFND. (1999). Guidelines for Watershed Management and

 Development in the Philippines. Los Banos, Laguna.

FMB, DENR. (1998).  The Philippine Strategy for Improved Watershed Resources

 Management. Quezon City, Philippines

Phases of Protected Area Management Planning

PHASES OF PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT PLANNING

by Antonio C. Antonio

March 8, 2015

There are several phases in protected area management planning.  The principles of management as we have learned in Management 101 are very much applicable in protected area management.  “The four basic and fundamental principles of management --- therefore, (1) planning, (2) organizing, (3) directing and (4) controlling --- apply in most organized (or even individual) endeavours (Antonio, 2014).”  The specific methodology used in protected area management, upland ecosystem management and other upland management activities may vary but the will always be guided by the by same management principles.

In environment and natural resources management, the same principles of management also apply.  “Sustainable environmental management, in direct relationship with the functions of management, can be presented in a circle of activities as follows: (1) An environmental VISION; (2) An environmental STRATEGY; (3) Detailed PLANNING; (4) A structured Environmental COMMUNICATION system; (5) A workable IMPLIMENTATION plan; (6) A comprehensive REPORTING system; and, (7) An oversight-focused evaluation of RESULTS.  More often, re-cycling of activities becomes necessary to address failures in the plans and programs (Antonio, 2014).”  

The major phases of protected area management planning are as follows:

1. PRELIMINARY PLANNING:  This is a necessary exercise prior to the actual planning is done.  The pre-planning activities are aimed at determining the effectiveness and efficiency of the planning exercise: (a) determine the preliminary objectives; (b) defining the location and extent of the area to be planned; (c) identifying the institution/s that will undertake or collaborate in the planning activities; (d) selecting the individuals and (SME) subject matter experts to be included in the planning team; (e) preparing the program of work; (f) identifying the logistical requirement; and, (g) enlisting the cooperation of local government officials and community leaders for the planning activities.
2. SITE CHARACTERIZATION:  Also called situational analysis, site characterization is the process of describing the planning area quantitatively and qualitatively.  This activity aims to build up research and technical information in a database necessary to achieve an ideal level of understanding of the area.  The database will be critical in the crafting of planning and implementation strategies later.  Site characterization activities are as follows: (a) delineation of boundaries; (b) identification and analysis of key stakeholders; (c) inventory of the resources in the area; (d) technical information such as climate, hydrology, geomorphy, socio-economic, etc.; and, (e) land capacity evaluation and classification.
3. S.W.O.T. ANALYSIS:  The database generated should be subjected to a SWOT analysis to familiarize the members of the planning team on the internal (strengths and weaknesses) and external (opportunities and threats) environments of the project.  The SWOT analysis is critical in anticipating potential problems in the actual planning and implementation stages.
4.  FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES:  An acceptable level of quantitative and qualitative information will aid in the formulation of objectives.  Under normal circumstances, the objectives are along these familiar lines: (a) rehabilitation of degraded areas; (b) soil and water conservation; (c) biodiversity conservation; (d) carbon sequestration; (e) eradication of poverty among the communities within the area; (f) production and sustainable utilization of natural resources; and, (g) improvement of water supply.
5. SETTING OF PHYSICAL TARGETS:  Target-setting is important in determining the area where interventions will be made.  But such interventions should be guided by the concept of sustainable development that must answer the following questions: (1) What biodiversity to conserve?; (2) How much water to produce?; (3) What is the acceptable maximum soil erosion rate?; (4) How much and what livelihood opportunities to generate?; and, (5) How much resources to be utilized without sacrificing the needs of the future generations?

We could never go wrong if we followed these phases of protected area management planning.

Just my little thoughts…

REFERENCES:

Antonio, A. C., (2014). Upland Ecosystem Management.  Retrieved on the 8^th of March 2015 from http://antonantonio.blogspot.com/search?q=principles+of+management

Antonio, A. C., (2014). Sustainable Environmental Management.  Retrieved on the 8^th of March 2015 from http://antonantonio.blogspot.com/2014/09/sustainable-environmental-management.html

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Formulating a Vision, Goals and Objectives for Protected Areas

FORMULATING A VISION, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES FOR PROTECTED AREAS

by Antonio C. Antonio

March 18, 2015

All developmental plans have a focal point --- a vision --- that is the end part of a road map.  Goals and objectives form part of the start and mid-point of this road map.  As in most developmental plans and programs, upland management (specifically protected areas) also has the need to formulate all three (vision, goals and objectives) as the guiding principles in the conduct and implementation of management plans and program.  The following are brief discussions on these guiding principles:

VISION – A vision defines the purpose of an organization that reflects its goals and aspiration.  Vision refers to the desired future condition of the protected area.  Vision deviation is a reality that needs to be addressed from time to time.  The exercise of oversight measures to revise a vision is also equally important to re-calibrate, adjust and re-direct the vision towards the goal and objectives and make it responsive to changes in the overall plan.

GOALS – A goal is an observable and measurable end result having one or more objectives to be achieved within a more or less fixed timeframe.  Goals are largely the general statements of what needs to be attained in the longer term.  These are normally the stated purpose of a proposed program and strategy.

OBJECTIVES – Objectives should be SMART… therefore; specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and time-bound.  An objective is a specific result that a person or system aims to achieve within a timeframe and with available resources.  In general, objectives are more specific and easier to measure than goals.  Objectives are basic tools that underlie all planning and strategic activities.  They serve as the basis for creating policy and evaluating performance.

Developmental plans and programs start on the right and ideal note of formulating a vision, goals and objectives for protected areas.

Just my little thoughts…

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Guiding Principles in Watershed Management

GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

by Antonio C. Antonio

March 7, 2015

In our environment and natural resources management concerns, it is critical to spend quality time looking into the importance of watersheds and watershed management.  “Watershed Management is the study of the relevant characteristics of a watershed aimed at the sustainable distribution of its resources and the process of creating and implementing plans, programs and projects to sustain and enhance watershed functions that affect the plant, animal and human communities within a watershed boundary.  The features of a watershed that can be the subject to management include water supply, water quality, drainage, stormwater runoff and water rights.” (Antonio, 2015)

The sustainable use of watershed resources should be based on the following key guiding principles (Cruz, 2002):

ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY:  Utilization and development of a watershed’s natural resources should be undertaken in a manner that is compatible with the maintenance and/or enhancement of essential ecological processes, biological diversity and the natural resource base.  Thus all technologies and production processes used should have a beneficial environmental impact.

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY:  Utilization and development of a watershed’s resources should be undertaken in a manner that will increase people’s control over their lives, is compatible with the culture and values of the people affected by it, maintains and strengthens community identity and ensures that the costs and benefits are shared equitably between and within communities and individual households.

ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY:  Utilization and development of a watershed’s natural resources should be undertaken in a manner that is economically efficient (therefore, the benefits are commensurate with the costs) and which ensure that resources are used and managed in a way that will retain their potential to support future generations.  It also means optimizing both the tangible and intangible economic benefits for the greatest number of people while ensuring (as far as the needs for sustainability of the watershed’s natural resources permit) that no one suffers economic hardships.

INSTITUTIONAL SUSTAINABILITY:  Community-based organizations, NGOs, LGUs and national institutions responsible for planning, implementing and monitoring watershed resources management activities should have the capability (financial and skilled human resources) to sustain delivery of services.

These are the guiding principles in watershed management.

Just my little thoughts.

SOURCES AND REFERENCES:

Villanueva, T. R., (2002). Upland Ecosystem Management, 2^nd Edition. University of the Philippines Open University

Antonio, A. C., (2015). Watershed Management. Retrieved 7^th of March 2015 from http://antonantonio.blodspot.com/

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Factors Affecting Population Growth

FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION GROWTH

by Antonio C. Antonio

March 6, 2015

“Population growth” and “population explosion” are nagging terms that have remained bothersome in the human psyche.  On a larger sense, population has a direct relationship to other equally nagging statements and concerns such as: (a) food security; (b) land use conversion; (c) terrestrial carrying capacity; (d) biodiversity conservation; (e) ecological balance; etc.  Before we jump into the more complex impact and effects of population on the environment, it is more important for us to understand the simple word “population”. (Antonio, 2015)  Having stated this, we probably need to determine the factors affecting population growth to better understand the dynamic relationship between population and the environment.

FOOD QUANTITY AND FOOD QUALITY:  The quantity and quality of food available is very critical to the survival of a population.  The availability of food affects the growth, development and survival especially the younger segment of a population.  Both the quantity and quality of food has a direct effect on the carrying capacity of a specific habitat.  While both flora and fauna require the same basic elements for the growth of a population, there is a difference in their energy sources.  While plants depend primarily on inorganic materials as their source of energy, animals depend on both plants and animals for their nutritional requirement.  Animals are either carnivores or herbivores or a combination of carnivores and herbivores at the same time.  There are also some plant species that depend on decomposing plants and animals for their nutrition.  There really is a dependence character between plants and animals when it comes to food and nutrition.

CLIMATE AND WEATHER:  Let us first define and differentiate climate and weather.  “CLIMATE is defined as: (1) the average long-term pattern of weather in a particular area or region.  Climate normally undergoes a cyclic change over a longer period of time covering years, decades, centuries or millennia; (2) the average course or condition in a particular place or area over a period of time exhibited by temperature, wind velocity and precipitation; and, (3) the prevailing set of environmental conditions on a particular region on earth characterizing a long period of time.  On the other hand, WEATHER is defined as the state of the atmosphere with respect to heat or cold, wetness or dryness, calm or storm, clearness or cloudiness over a relatively short period of time.” (Antonio, 2015)  Extreme weather and climactic conditions may cause high death rate that affect population growth.  The reproductive capability of a population is also influenced by climate and weather and, therefore, also has a significant effect on population growth.

INTRASPECIFIC COMPETITION:  Intraspecific competition as a interaction in population ecology whereby members of the same species compete for the same resources or limited resources in a specific area.  This leads to a reduction in fitness for both individuals.  This condition has profound effects on the health and reproduction capability of both flora and fauna in a specific habitat.

INTERSPECIFIC COMPETITION:  Interspecific competition, in ecology, is a form of competition characterized by individuals of different species competing for the same resource in an ecosystem (therefore, food or territory).  This is opposed to intraspecific completion in the sense that actual competition involves different species of plants and animals in a specific habitat which also affects population growth.

PREDATION:  In ecology, predation is a biological interaction wherein a predator (an organism always in the hunt) feeds on its prey (an organism that is hunted).  Predators often kill their prey before feeding on their tissues.  Predation is commonly associated with carnivory (meaning: an animal that feeds on flesh) although sometimes it could also be associated with herbivory (meaning: the eating and consumption of plants).  Predation reduces animal and plant population and affects population growth.  In human populations, predation could very well be the killing of people for other resources… not food, but other natural resources and territory.

These are the more common factors affecting population growth.

Just my little thoughts…

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REFERENCES:

Antonio, A. C. (2015). Population. Retrieved 6^th of March 2015 from http://antonantonio.blogspot.com/

Antonio, A. C. (2015). Climate and Weather. Retrieved 6^th of March 2015 from http://antonantonio.blogspot.com/search?q=CLIMATE+AND+WEATHER

Watershed Management

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

by Antonio C. Antonio

March 6, 2015

What is a watershed?  A watershed is an area or ridge of land that separates bodies of water flowing to different rivers, basins, or seas.  A watershed is also defined as: “The area of land from which rainwater can drain, as surface runoff, via a specific stream or river system to a common outlet point which may be a dam, irrigation system or municipality/city/urban water supply or take off point, or where the stream/river discharges into a larger river, lake or the sea.” (Villanueva, 2002)

Watershed Management is the study of the relevant characteristics of a watershed aimed at the sustainable distribution of its resources and the process of creating and implementing plans, programs and projects to sustain and enhance watershed functions that affect the plant, animal and human communities within a watershed boundary.  The features of a watershed that can be the subject to management include water supply, water quality, drainage, stormwater runoff and water rights.

Watershed management and sustainable forest management are complimentary.  Integration of these two management systems can result to: (a) a well coordinated utilization resources to support watershed management objectives; (b) mobilize and involve human resources in the actual implementation of activities towards achieving watershed management goals; and (c) integrating protection and preservation efforts under the ambit of sustainable utilization.  These are the essential functions of the integrated watershed management approach or, in general, watershed management.

Just my little thoughts…

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The Watershed Approach

THE WATERSHED APPROACH

by Antonio C. Antonio

March 5, 2015

The Watershed Approach is, by far, the most effective framework to address the water resource challenges and problems of today.  Watersheds supply drinking water, provide recreation and respite, and sustain life.  The Watershed Approach refers to the practice and application of the concepts and principles of watershed management to the management of land, inland water bodies and other natural resources.  It allows the use of the watershed as the basic unit for planning taking into consideration the interconnectivity of land and inland water resources in crafting key management strategies and development decisions without prejudice to the sustainability of socio-economic benefits man gets from the watershed.

Having mentioned the foregoing, what then are the reasons why the watershed is the most appropriate unit for planning and management for sustainable development?  Please consider the following reasons:  (1) Watersheds have a fixed physical boundary as a functional ecological landscape.  They contain the key principles, criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management; (2) Watersheds, a defined landscapes, makes assessment of chosen sustainable forest management strategies for the watershed ecosystem can easily be accomplished; (3) Watersheds allow for a holistic approach sustainable forest management where social, institutional, economic, production and ecological factors have direct influence and impact; and, (4) Water is an excellent monitoring mechanism since it is the best index for sustainable forest management.  If a watershed is managed well to quality water, it is most likely managed properly in other ways.

Often, watersheds are taken for granted.  Water and water bodies are very important to preserve biodiversity in an ecosystem.  Watersheds are important parts of the ecosystem.  Therefore, equally important is the Watershed Approach.

Just my little thoughts…

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Supply

SUPPLY

by Antonio C. Antonio

March 4, 2015

Supply is a concept that needs to be understood in the study of environment and natural resources management.  Like goods and services in the realm of economics and business, natural resources are offered goods and services too.

Supply refers to the different quantities of goods and services that sellers are willing to place in the market per unit time at various prices.  Please note that both demand and supply are both measured and defined in terms of time.  Supply is a fundamental concept that describes the total amount of a specific good or service that is made available to consumers.  Supply can relate to the amount of available at a specific price or the amount available across a range of prices if displayed on a graph.

The Law of Supply states that as the price of a product increases (therefore, good or service), the quantity supplied also increases.  Likewise, as the price of a product decreases, the quantity supplied also decreases.  The Law of Supply describes the behaviour of sellers as a response to alternative prices of a product.  It should be noted that there is a positive relationship between price and quantity supplied.  Such is the distinct characteristic of supply.

Just my little thoughts…

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Action Research

ACTION RESEARCH

by Antonio C. Antonio

March 3, 2015

Last February 27, 2015, I published an article on the subject “Research Method” on my blogsite (http://antonantonio.blogspot.com/search?q=research+method).  After enumerating some recommended research methods, my good friend, Prof. Fred Cabuang of De La Salle University, mentioned that Action Research is the preferred and recommended method for use by post-graduate students.  Prof. Fred was correct to recommend this method because of the participatory nature of this research method.

There are several definitions of Action Research.  Such as:

·         RAPOPORT:  “Action research aims to contribute both to the concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation and to the goals of social science by jointly collaboration within a mutually acceptable ethical framework.”

·         HULT and LENNUNG: “Action research simultaneously assists in practical problem-solving and expands scientific knowledge, as well as enhances the competencies of the respective actors, being performed collaboratively in an immediate situation using data feedback in a cyclical process aiming at an increased understanding of a given social situation and undertaken within a mutually acceptable ethical framework.”

Kurt Lewin, a social psychologist, is credited with postulating Action Research.  Lewin describes or defines Action Research as the promotion of changes in a group by using complex social issues in order to bring about improvements to a society.  This is accomplished by collecting and considering even ill-structured data from organized workshops to construct general laws and how these (general laws) can impact on social changes to be implemented.

There are also different types of Action Research, such as:

1.    Experimental Action Research – This practice is the most popular and traditional type of Action Research which is a deductive perspective.  In this process, a set of hypotheses (to include ill-defined data and information) are bunched together with the purpose of identifying the cause-effects relationships and dynamics between these hypotheses  with the ultimate end of deriving general laws from a series of interventions.

2.    Inductive Action Research – This practice aims to produce a general theory from qualitative data.  In this process, data (mostly qualitative) collected from the Action Research intervention may do away with any attempt to verify data.  The ultimate purpose is producing a general theory even from these unverified data.

3.    Participatory Action Research – This is a more tedious process that entails immersion and participation of the researchers in the entire length of the intervention.  In this process, the researcher assumes the role of facilitator and consultants instead of a resource person. Again, the bottom-line purpose is to derive general laws which could be the basis for diagnostics to be conducted.

From the foregoing discussion, it seems possible and plausible that Action Research could be used as a form of research especially (in their order ease in accomplishing) (a) Experimental Action Research, (b) Inductive Action Research and (c) Participatory Action Research.  Action Research is described as a type of research initiated to solve an immediate problem or a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others as part of a community to improve the way they address issues and solve problems.  There is a close relationship between participatory management and Action Research.  As pro-environment and natural resources management practitioners, we are all aware of the importance and relevance of participatory management in upland undertakings.  Upland communities are more receptive to a more “personalized” approach which is one of the centrepiece elements of participatory management.

Additionally, like in basic management, there are identifiable stages in using Action Research.  These are: (1) Analysis; (2) Fact-finding and data gathering; (3) Conceptualization; (4) Planning; (5) Implementation; and, (6) Progressive evaluation.

The choice of research method is really the call of the researcher.  But if the researcher is looking for a higher degree of effectiveness, and because of its participatory nature, nothing can beat Action Research.

Just my little thoughts…

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REFERENCES:

Antonio, A. C. (2015). Research Methods.  Retrieved 3^rd of March 2015 from http://antonantonio.blogspot.com/search?q=research+method

Avison, D., Baskerville, R. and Myers, M. (2001). Controlling Action Research Projects, Information Technology and People.

Avison, D., Lau, F., Neilsen, P. A., and Myers, M. (1999). “ActionResearch.” Communications of ACM.

Sagor, R. (2000). Guiding School Improvement with Action Research. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Retrieved 16 February 2015 from http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/100047/chapters/What-Is-Action-Research%C2%A2.aspx

Management of Competition, Conflict and Dispute

MANAGEMENT OF COMPETITION, CONFLICT AND DISPUTE

by Antonio C. Antonio

March 2, 2015

Mother Earth is traditionally been regarded as a finite resource.  The universe, as an expanding entity, could be considered mythical but scientist say it is a fact.  But Mother Earth is also not included in such expansion.  The limitation of resources inevitably creates competition, conflict and dispute.

Let’s describe and differentiate competition, conflict and dispute. Competition is the rivalry among organisms, animals, individuals and groups trying to achieve such goals as control and additional share of resources.  Resources, in this light, could come in the form of territory, a niche, prestige, recognition, awards, social status, and even leadership.  Competition occurs naturally between living organisms co-existing in the same environment.  Conflict, on the other hand, is the inherent incompatibility between the objectives of two or more characters or forces.  Conflict creates tension and interest in a story by adding doubt as to the outcome.  Dispute may seem synonymous to conflict but, to be more specific, the term dispute means: (a) to engage in argument or debate; (b) to argue vehemently; (c) to wrangle or quarrel; (d) to discuss against; (e) to verbally contest or oppose; and, (f) to state differences of opinions in a controversy.

Conflict and dispute are basically caused by individual and group differences and backgrounds.  According to psychologist Art Bell and Brett Hart, there are eight common causes of conflict.  These are: (1) conflicting resources; (2) conflicting styles; (3) conflicting perceptions; (4) conflicting goals; (5) conflicting pressures; (6) conflicting roles; (7) conflicting personal values; and, (8) conflicting policies.  (http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/eight-causes-conflict.htm)  There are more deep-rooted differences that are often reconcilable such as religion, culture and traditions as in the political conflict case of Muslim Mindanao in the Philippines.  On the other hand, the ISIS (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria) conflict case is anchored on extreme ideological beliefs.

“Dispute or conflict management is a derived social process that has developed from the basic process of conflict.  Acculturation and assimilation are derived social processes that grew from the basic process of cooperation.” (“Cultures and Societies in Typical Forest Ecosystems”, Daylinda Banzon-Cabanilla, 2002)  In a situation where resources are plentiful, these social processes rarely exist in the uplands.  However, when resources are scarce, conflicts and disputes occur.

Competition, conflicts and disputes in the upland environment are more often neither ideological nor political… but the inequitable distribution of resources among stakeholders.  Striking a balanced distribution of such resources in the uplands is the perfect formula to the management of competition, conflict and disputes.

Just my little thoughts…

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