Types of Ecological Succession

TYPES OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

by Antonio C. Antonio

March 22, 2015

“What is ecological succession?  Ecological succession is a natural process of change in the species (fauna and flora) structure of an ecological community over a period of time.  The process begins with a few pioneering animals and plants and a long-drawn sequence of morphology which ultimately results to a climax community of living elements in an ecosystem.  I remember having written an article entitled “Ecological Succession” published on http://antonantonio.blogspot.com/ before.  In this article, I mentioned:  “There have been a few disturbances in the Philippine landscape in the last 25 years that could be considered as primary succession.  Notable among which is the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in 1991 that covered most of Central Luzon with ash.  The subsequent lahar that changed the flow/stream of the river systems in Tarlac, Pampanga and Zambales can also be included in this disturbance regime.  But if we visit these places now, there is hardly a trace of Mt. Pinatubo’s devastating eruption.  Other forms of disturbance --- floods, landslides and storm surge --- can be considered secondary succession since the presence of soil, which is the primary catalyst for ecological succession, still exists.” (Antonio, 2014)

“There have been a few disturbances in the Philippine landscape in the last 25 years that could be considered as primary succession.  Notable among which is the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in 1991 that covered most of Central Luzon with ash.  The subsequent lahar that changed the flow/stream of the river systems in Tarlac, Pampanga and Zambales can also be included in this disturbance regime.  But if we visit these places now, there is hardly a trace of Mt. Pinatubo’s devastating eruption.  Other forms of disturbance --- floods, landslides and storm surge --- can be considered secondary succession since the presence of soil, which is the primary catalyst for ecological succession, is still present.”  (Antonio, 2014)

What are the types of ecological succession?  They are primary and secondary successions.  Primary succession is of biological and ecological succession of plant life, occurring in an environment in which new substrate devoid of vegetation and usually lacking soil, such as a lava flow or areas left from retreated glacier, is deposited.  Primary succession develops on an area where plant life never before existed such as areas covered by lava flow or newly formed islands resulting from geological upliftment.  After these new areas are colonized by plant life, but disturbed, succession will now be secondary… therefore, secondary succession.  Secondary succession, therefore, is a series of community changes which take place on a previously colonized, but disturbed or damaged habitat.  Disturbances after the primary succession mostly come from or are the results of anthropogenic (meaning: man-made) factors.  Primary and secondary successions are the two types of ecological succession.

Just my little thoughts…

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REFERENCES:

Antonio, A. C., (2014). Ecological Succession (Part 2). Retrieved on the 22^nd day of March 2015 from http://antonantonio.blogspot.com/2014/07/ecological-succession-part-2.html

Antonio, A. C,. (2014) Ecological Siccession. Retrieved on the 22^nd day of March 2015 from http://antonantonio.blogspot.com/search?q=ecological+succession

Ecological Succession (Part 2)

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION (Part 2)

by Antonio C. Antonio

July 23, 2014

Over a month ago, I visited my daughter (Prof./Atty. Regatta Marie A. Antonio) at the University of the Philippines – Manila campus.  Walking from the parking lot to the faculty lounge, my attention was caught by a sprig of life along the way.  It was a small twig with leaves growing out of the pavement.  Using my mobile phone, I took a picture. (Please see photo.)  I should have taken a “selfie” but thought that my face or image was inconsequential to this very important find.  While taking the photo, my mind was already swirling with the term “ecological succession”.

What is ecological succession?  Ecological succession is a natural process of change in the species (fauna and flora) structure of an ecological community over a period of time.  The process begins with a few pioneering animals and plants and a long-drawn sequence of morphology which ultimately results to a climax community of living elements in an ecosystem.  I remember having written an article entitled “Ecological Succession” published on http://antonantonio.blogspot.com/ before.  In this article, I mentioned:  “There have been a few disturbances in the Philippine landscape in the last 25 years that could be considered as primary succession.  Notable among which is the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in 1991 that covered most of Central Luzon with ash.  The subsequent lahar that changed the flow/stream of the river systems in Tarlac, Pampanga and Zambales can also be included in this disturbance regime.  But if we visit these places now, there is hardly a trace of Mt. Pinatubo’s devastating eruption.  Other forms of disturbance --- floods, landslides and storm surge --- can be considered secondary succession since the presence of soil, which is the primary catalyst for ecological succession, still exists.” (Antonio, 2014)

The unique situation of the plant I captured in the photo is the absence of soil or just a thin film of it.  Although this still very characteristic of “secondary ecological succession”, this case is largely influenced by other factors such as: (1) the protracted rainy season and availability of water, (2) the abundance of sunlight and (3) the absence of any prevailing disturbance regime.  It should be noted that this solitary plant grew near an out-flow road drain which facilitates its access to water.  The initial disturbance was due to the laying of base course materials and the paving of the road with cement which covered soil.  But in spite of this, secondary ecological succession still happened as evidenced by the plant growing on top of the concrete pavement.

There are two basic types of ecological succession… primary and secondary.  Both types of ecological succession are anchored on the principle that forests and plant life will successfully grow (in time) and survive so long as they are not subjected to disturbances.  Tree planting (sans tarpaulins and photo ops) definitely helps.  But if only forests and trees are left to their natural growing order and not disturbed by illegal logging, slash and burn farming, land use conversion, etc.… they will regenerate.  Thanks to Mother Earth’s capacity to heal by herself in a process called ecological succession.

Just my little thoughts…

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Ecological Succession

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

by Antonio C. Antonio

February 4, 2014

“Most of our large-scale reforestation projects are funded through government loans from international banks, hence as citizens, we are all co-debtors. In what way can knowledge in the current stage of ecological succession be helpful in reforestation activities? Discuss its implication on site-species matching (choosing the survivable species depending on site quality), tending/maintenance cost, and probable survival rate of planting materials.” (Professor Renato A. Folledo, Jr.)

There have been a few disturbances in the Philippine landscape in the last 25 years that could be considered as primary succession.  Notable among which is the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in 1991 that covered most of Central Luzon with ash.  The subsequent lahar that changed the flow/stream of the river systems in Tarlac, Pampanga and Zambales can also be included in this disturbance regime.  But if we visit these places now, there is hardly a trace of Mt. Pinatubo’s devastating eruption.  Other forms of disturbance --- floods, landslides and storm surge --- can be considered secondary succession since the presence of soil, which is the primary catalyst for ecological succession, is still present.

Our country is truly blessed to be strategically located in the tropical rain forest belt.  The annual rainfall and weather system are ideal in promoting a year-round growth for trees, plants and vegetation.  The survivability of plants is above the normally accepted standards and most plant and tree species can grow anywhere.  I would drive along EDSA almost daily and could not help but notice plants grow out of the joints, cracks and crevices of the MRT wall.  This is a testimony to how easy it is to plant anything anywhere in this country and be assured of their survival.  It is also said that while other countries would labour to grow plants, we Filipinos could just simply throw away the seeds of our favourite fruit in our backyard and, before we even realize it, we already have an orchard.  Selecting tree species for a particular area, planting costs and survivability in this country is not much of a problem than the actual act of planting trees.

The single-biggest reforestation program at present is the National Greening Program (NGP) of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR).  From what I’ve heard, it has a PhP 5 billion funding.  I could not be certain, however, if this is actually a loan from international lending institutions. But judging from the budget the DENR has been getting from the GAA in the last three years, it is more likely that the PhP 5 billion is a loan.  And if it’s a loan, then there is a real reason to get alarmed since, as Sir Jun mentioned, “we are all co-debtors”.

The National Greening Program is a good reforestation program.  But I have serious reservations on the manner by which accomplishments are being established and the parameters being used to determine results.  There was a significant “increase” in the Philippine forest cover by the end of 2012.  Why?... Not due to additional trees actually being planted but a change in the parameters in considering and classifying forest cover.  The United Nations – Food and Agriculture Organization (UN-FAO) reset the standard to include even small patches of trees in the total forest cover of a country.  Right now, strips of trees being planted along roadsides are being considered as NGP accomplishments.  The question that needs to be answered now is whether these strips of trees should be considered as “forest”.  It is quite hard reconciling what we define to be a forest with the new parameters and procedure in forest inventory.

Last year, the DENR – Forest Management Bureau (DENR-FMB) has been facilitating meetings between tenurial instrument holders and lending institutions (notably the Development Bank of the Philippines [DBP]) for soft loan packages for reforestation activities.  This is also a concerned move on the part of the DENR especially for tenurial instrument holders seriously affected by the moratorium on harvesting activities or Executive Order No. 23.  The tenurial instrument holders, however, are not too comfortable with this arrangement.  Financial studies conducted by IFMAP (an organization of IFMA holders) revealed that the interest rates, repayment schemes and other loan conditions are not too encouraging and will only create further financial malaise among IFMAP members.  In reality, it costs more that PhP 12 thousand per hectare to establish a tree plantation.

Most IFMAP members have been diligent in their reforestation and developmental activities commitments.  But government seemingly forgot that they are their partners in forest development and preservation.  The DENR should consider tenurial instrument holders as co-operators in the NGP... at least those who have proven records of success in the field of forest management.  This will make the entire NGP program more transparent and, with private sector involvement, make the program less prone to usual failure.

“How can ecological succession concept affect our decision-making in maintaining a balance in upland resources extraction, conservation, and preservation?” (Professor Renato A. Folledo, Jr.)

Forest products are still mainstream commodities that help spur economic growth and development.  The declaration of a total logging ban in the Philippines will only put pressure on other forests in other parts of the world… if not cause the trade in wood products to go underground and therefore encourage illegal logging even more.  (Logging bans have a curious way of increasing demand and prices which make logging, however illegal, more lucrative as a business endeavour.)  It should be noted that even with the imposition of a moratorium in some 3 years ago, the furniture and woodworking businesses have not slowed down on their production schedules and commitments.  Many downstream wood industry businesses still thrive and prosper even when there are no clear and legal sources for their inputs.  This will only make us more convinced that illegal logging continues.  This, however, is not sustainable and would only give us long-term problems down the road.

Sustainable forest management still remains to be our best bet in maintaining a balance in upland resources utilization and preservation.  The tenurial instruments system should be further expanded to cover more forest areas as well as the provision of support mechanisms to plantation establishment in partnership with the upland communities.

A clear understanding of the concept ecological succession will surely help stewards and managers of forestlands in their decision-making processes.  One of the generic challenges of upland management is the insufficiency of funds to support developmental projects and activities.  Efficiency of fund use therefore becomes critical.  Knowing that ecological succession is the inevitable order of nature, developmental plans could be recalibrated to efficiently manage financial resources.  Knowledge of ecological succession will then and also allows the focus and re-direction of funds to where they are truly and critically needed.

Just my little thoughts…

REFERENCES:

·  http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080708021430AApSkVt

·  http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/j9345e/j9345e08.htm

·  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logging

·  http://www.fao.org/docrep/x0963e/x0963e09.htm

·  http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/ae346e/AE346E03.htm

COMMENTS / REACTIONS:

Professor Renato A. Folledo, Jr. (February 5, 2014): “Hi Anton, Thanks for your thought-provoking insights. I have a question for you to answer, discuss, or further clarify. Could it be that the trees growing in the cracks and crevices are manifestation of primary succession?”

Clarence Faith Escote (February 6, 2014):  “Thank you Sir Jun and Sir Anton for sharing your knowledge and views on this.  I think plants growing in cracks and crevices in urban areas are mostly manifestation of secondary succession. The plant's adaptive characteristics allowed it to thrive and reach thin - soiled dry sites with the aid of water, sunlight and other agents of growth.”

Antonio C. Antonio (February 7, 2014):  “I should say that plants/trees growing out of cracks and crevices on the MRT wall along EDSA are a manifestation of primary succession.  The accumulation of soil from dust particles, mud from the underchasis of vehicles and rain provided the basic element (soil) in these crannies to support plant life.  I seriously doubt, however, if ecological succession can go full cycle to the climax stage.  The fact that EDSA is one of the most polluted strip of road in Metro Manila plus the many disturbances that happen there would not support the completion of ecological succession. One of the conditions for successful ecological succession is the absence of any form of disturbance.  Take the case of the abandoned Buddhist temple complex in Angkor Wat, Cambodia… the place, in its relative isolation, was left undisturbed for a long period of time.  As a result, ecological succession successfully reached the climax stage.”

Elizabeth Villezar (February 7, 2014): “I think those trees growing in crevices and cracks may be or may not be considered a manifestation of primary succession.  Based on the videos and the literature about primary succession, soil factor is very crucial here.  Soil may still be present in those crevices and cracks (hidden beneath because of human intervention).  However, if those crevices and cracks are located in a barren place where there are no traces of soil at first and only after sometime that trees/ plants grow; then primary succession may be considered here.”

The Concept of Ecosystem Development

THE CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

by Antonio C. Antonio

June 10, 2014

QUESTION:  How will an abandoned shrimp pond evolve using a generalized concept of ecosystem development?

When left undisturbed, an abandoned shrimp pond will undergo progressive change in a phenomenon called ecosystem development.  Ecosystem development is a broad term which includes both biotic and abiotic changes in the environment and is the outcome of all the processes in the system.  It includes the following parameters:  (1) the kinds and number of species that colonized an ecosystem; (2) the changes in the climate or microclimate in the ecosystem; (3) the distribution of energy in the ecosystem; (4) the different organic matter found in the soil and/or water, etc.

Ecological succession, on the other hand, is the sequential, gradual and directional change in the structure and composition of the biotic community in an ecosystem.  There are two types of ecological succession: (1) primary succession where a new ecosystem develops in a particular area and (2) secondary succession where changes occur from a disturbed ecosystem.  The “re-evolution” of an abandoned shrimp pond, like most ecological successions we witness, could be considered a secondary succession.

Shrimp ponds productivity has proven to be unsustainable, largely because of (a) disease problems, (b) defects in pond infrastructure and inappropriate construction methods, (c) overstocking and (d) poor environmental conditions.  After a few production cycles, shrimp ponds become unproductive and become idle then abandoned.  Unofficial estimates suggest that as many as 70% of shrimp ponds are left unattended after they are deemed unproductive.  The eventual non-productivity of shrimp ponds is attributed mainly to (1) hydrological conditions, (2) the flora and fauna composition of the pond, and (3) alterations to the physical and chemical properties of the soil. 

It should be noted that many shrimp ponds were conversions from mangroves and mangroves forest areas.  The problem of unproductive and abandoned shrimp ponds magnifies further as shrimp pond producers endeavor to recover and/or maintain their business.  They often consider moving to sites, normally within the same periphery of the original pond, and pursue shrimp production.  This practice eventually expands the problem.  In time, the area of abandoned shrimp ponds expands wider and wider.

Shrimp farming creates environmental problems such as:

a)    Salinisation of the soil;

b)    Increase in coastal soil erosion;

c)     Discharge of undesirable chemicals causing coastal water pollution and reduced nutrient enrichment;

d)    Activation of acid sulphate soils;

e)    Contamination of ground water;

f)     Reduction of habitat and reduction of shoreline protection;

g)    Reduction of agricultural land and mangrove deforestation; and,

h)    Introduction of exotic species and depletion of wild prawn and fish larvae stocks.

The question now and challenge is what to do with abandoned shrimp ponds.  There are several alternative courses of action:

1.     Rehabilitate the abandoned shrimp ponds so they could be re-utilized to shrimp ponds again;

2.     Rehabilitate the abandoned shrimp ponds so they could be put to some other alternative and sustainable use like production of salt; and,

3.     Restore the environmental conditions within the abandoned shrimp ponds and adjacent areas by re-establishing a productive mangrove ecosystem.

These options, however, are quite expensive.  But abandoning the shrimp pond without the benefit of intervention whatsoever will have a environmentally disastrous consequence.  Cost and benefit ratio will have to be established but since the issue at hand involves the environment, the environment must always be given preferential attention and priority.

Another success-probable option is to leave the shrimp pond alone with minor infrastructure intervention such as tearing down floodgates, barriers, impounding dikes, etc. to allow water/seawater to flow in and out with the rising and lowering of the tide.  This way, although it may take a longer period of time, the shrimp pond will have a chance to re-generate and evolve into a secondary succession.  It should also be noted that no other shrimp pond is established in adjacent areas… the entire periphery of the shrimp pond should be left alone and considered in any measure to rehabilitate the entire area.

Most, if not all, knowledgeable personalities on the environment agree that the most and only plausible alternative at present is to convert or restore the abandoned shrimp ponds into mangrove forests.  The mangrove is the natural hatchery for shrimp larvae and provides the food chain.  The roots, trunks fallen branches and leave are food for shrimps.  The absence of a certain degree of mangrove reforestation is a must to accomplish the restoration of abandoned shrimp ponds.

In summary, the following events occur prior to the abandonment of the shrimp pond:

1.     A shrimp pond is established by scraping-off soil to construct an impounding dike and increase the pond’s capacity by deepen the pond.  Oftentimes, some mangrove trees are sacrificed in the effort to widen the pond for a bigger production;

2.     Salt and seawater is allowed into the pond;

3.     The mangrove, being a natural hatchery for shrimps, will spawn shrimp nauplius that then grown into adult shrimps;

4.     Shrimp farmers have a tendency to overpopulate (for business and profitability reasons) and overfeed (thinking that shrimps will grow faster when fed abundantly);

5.     Unconsumed feed settles at the bottom of the pond that allows other organisms to grow and contribute to the soil’s toxicity and acidity.  This is the main contributor to eventual undersized harvest and diseases that often causes the widespread death of the shrimp population;

6.     When it is no longer profitable to continue operating the shrimp pond for shrimp production purposes, it is now abandoned.

The shrimp pond can only regenerate back to its original condition if and when the following measures are undertaken:

a)    INFRASTRUCTURE INTERVENTION – Impounding dikes are broken down at strategic point to allow sea water to come in and go out to conform with the daily tides.  Marine organisms will accompany the sea water as it regularly flows into the pond.  Screen materials are installed in these inlets and outlets to prevent these organisms from leaving the pond.  These organisms will eventually settle on the bed of the pond and (in time) consume the acids in the soil.  The eventual elimination of acids in the pond will bring it back to its original productive state.

b)    MANGROVE REFORESTATION – To aid and hasten the regeneration of the shrimp pond, additional mangrove species of trees (such as bakawan) will have to be planted.

Infrastructure intervention, mangrove reforestation and the assumption that the pond is left undisturbed, therefore, no other human activity is present, will allow the shrimp pond to evolve back to its original state.  The period involved in the restoration process will largely depend on the degree of degradation and the shrimp pond’s proximity to the coastline.  Researchers and environment management practitioners put this from 15 to 30 years

Just my little thoughts…

REFERENCES: 

·         http://darwin.bio.uci.edu/~sustain/shrimpecos/CMJsgsp.html

·         http://www.mangroverestoration.com/Stevenson_et_al_1999_Disused_Shrimp_Ponds.pdf

·         http://www.panoramaacuicola.com/noticias/2005/10/31/the_downside_of_shrimp_farming_and_trade_in_southeast_asia.html

·         http://pew.seafdec.org.ph/pub/hydro95.pdf

·         http://oldsite.nautilus.org/archives/papers/enviro/trade/shrimp.html

·         http://www.google.com.ph/#q=abandoned+shrimp+ponds+in+the+philippines&hl=en&tbo=d&rlz=1C2CHJW_enPH425PH455&ei=KyIHUeGyOKmYiAejnoDYDA&sqi=2&start=10&sa=N&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.&fp=1ca0e2dc47794114&biw=1152&bih=773

Causes of Deforestation

CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION

by Antonio C. Antonio

INTRODUCTION

Overview

Climate change has been more pronounced at the turn of the 21st Century. The recent and most devastating typhoon that hit the Philippines, the heavy rains and flooding in the Middle East, widening desertification in Africa, the peculiar snow in South East Asia and other changes and reversals in climactic conditions are all being attributed to climate change. The common knowledge on climate change is that it is primarily caused by deforestation. And everyone frowns whenever they hear the word “logging”.

Problem

Unknown to many, deforestation is not caused by logging alone but by a combination of conditions that are both anthropogenic or man-made and natural. This report will attempt to provide information and data on the other causes of deforestation and re-direct the focal point of concern to these problems which includes logging. It is my contention that addressing one concern, in a seemingly complex problem, will not remedy the situation in its entirety.

Importance of the Problem

The Earth is our home… our only home. We should treat it the way we treat the houses we live in. No one, in their right minds, will deliberately litter their homes with trash, fill it with pollutants, allow others to invade it, burn it down or neglect it. No one will consciously allow their families to live in a house that is not fit for human existence.

The most important function of the forest is the provision of food and other resources that balances our ecosystem. Deforestation could lead to soil erosion, aridity and desertification. But more than the provision of physical resources (timber, forest wildlife and water) is the carbon sequestration capability of the forest. We could very well include not only air, but clean air to the list of benefits we derives from the forest.

Our concern for the environment should not only be limited to palliative measures for today but more permanent solutions for tomorrow. The future generations, who will inhabit the Earth after us, should be tops in our list of priorities. We could start by increasing the level of awareness of people on the real cause or causes of our environmental malaise… and we could start by properly identifying all the causes of deforestation. Only by increasing our level of understanding on the real cause or causes of deforestation can we formulate the ideal strategies and solutions to solve deforestation or adapt to it.

Objective

The objective of this study is to identify most, if not all, of the possible causes of deforestation… both natural and anthropogenic. Special focus will also be made on the man-made causes on the pretext that these are what could be controlled and managed by man himself.

This study will also attempt to explain the sensitive relationships between the biotic and abiotic components in our ecosystem aside from the complimentary existence of food producers, consumers and decomposers. Autotrophs, heterotrophs and detritivores which can only be found in forests ecosystems play a big role in the perpetuation of forest lands. Deforestation undermines this critical balance of nature.

Time and Place of Study

This report is in compliance with an academic requirement for my subject, ENRM 235 – Upland Ecosystem Management, in the Master in Environment and Natural Resources Management course at the U.P. Open University for the 2nd Semester of School Year 2013-14. This report will be submitted to Professor Renato A. Folledo, Jr., the Faculty in Charge (FIC).

UPOU is a research-based distance learning institution. The Internet provides to most students the most convenient means to do research work. Most of the data and information in this report were gathered through Internet surfing and research. Appropriate citing of references will however be made.

Definition and Description of Terms

Several terms have already been mentioned in this report and further definition and description of these terms is in order: 

• Deforestation is the clear-cutting of a stand of trees for the conversion of the forest to non-forest use. The clear-cutting of the forest without sufficient reforestation could result in damage to habitat, loss of biodiversity, soil erosion and ultimately, in extreme cases, aridity or desertification. Deforestation is also a wartime strategy to take away the use of the forest canopy as cover by the enemy. During the Vietnam War in the 1970s, the US Military used “agent orange” to deforest vast tracts of forestland to expose their enemies. 
• Climate Change is the change in global climactic patterns attributed largely to significant increase in the levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide produced by the burning of fossil fuels. Manifesting itself in the mid-20th century, it had significant and lasting effects and change in worldwide weather patterns… some even extreme.
• Environment is our total planetary inheritance and the totality of all resources available to us. It includes all biotic and abiotic factors and components that interact and influence each other. Environment can also be defined by the surroundings or conditions in which man, animals and plants live and operate. Environment is also described as the natural world, as a whole or in a particular geographical area.
• Biotic components are the living organisms that shape an ecosystem and a biotic factor is any living component that affects another organism. Humans are considered biotic factors in the ecosystem. Biotic components usually include: (1) Autotrophs or producers; (2) Heterotrophs or consumers; and, (3) Detritivores or decomposers.
• Abiotic factors and components are the non-living components of an organism’s environment such as temperature, light, moisture, air currents, etc.
• Autotrophs or producers are plants that convert the energy of the sun through a process called photosynthesis which transfers sunlight, water and carbon dioxide into energy or other sources of energy (such as hydrothermal vents) into food.
• Heterotrophs or consumers are the animals and other living organism that depend on the autotrophs for food.
• Detritivores or decomposers are the fungi and bacteria that break down chemicals from autotrophs and heterotrophs into simpler forms which could be reused by the autotrophs and heterotrophs..

Difference between Deforestation and Forest Degradation

Deforestation and Forest Degradation are two terms commonly confused for the other. In some cases, people even think that the mere felling of a single tree already accounts for deforestation. These terms should be clearly defined and differentiated. “Deforestation is defined as the conversion of a forest cover into other non-forest land cover.” (Professor Renato A. Folledo, Jr.) On the other hand, the definition of forest degradation is contained in my report entitled “Ecological Succession”, ENRM 235 dated February 4, 2014: “Simplifying things, there are two definitions of degradation. The broad definition is the reduction of forest quality… therefore, (1) the density and structure of the trees in the forest, (2) the ecological services supplied by the forest, (3) the biomass of flora and fauna in the forest, and (3) the species and genetic diversity in the forest. The narrow definition is the removal of forest cover to allow for a different or alternative land use. These definitions (broad and narrow), however, are also confusingly used by different branches of a single agency. The broad definition is used by the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) while the United Nations – Food and Agriculture Organization (UN-FAO) uses the narrow definition.”

Additional information on forest degradation and deforestation are also quoted from the above-mentioned report and reads: “Having made the distinctions in the definition of the terms deforestation and forest degradation, allow me to mention the different forms of logging, timber extraction and harvesting systems and procedures. These are: (1) Selective Logging where only the sick, defective and over mature trees are harvested; and, (2) Clear-Cutting which is a logging procedure that entails the harvesting of all the trees in an area regardless of the health and physical condition of the trees. “Illegal logging” should fall under selective logging as those which are involved in this harvesting activity would prefer to use the remaining forest as cover for their nefarious business. As defined, the clear-cutting system should fall under deforestation while selective logging could only contribute to forest degradation.”

MATERIALS AND METHOD

The method that shall be adopted in this study is as follows:

1. Research and read as much materials on the subject matter;
2. Gather as much information and data from the Internet on the subject matter;
3. Develop a synthesis on the causes of deforestation; and,
4. Present an educated opinion based on the processing and analysis of the information and data collected.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Types of Forests

There exists several types of forest and briefly discussion each one is important to establish their differences. The types of forests are:

1. Tropical Rain Forest – Tropical rain forests are spread over more than 60 countries, accounting for almost two-fifths of all of the world’s close forest and containing half of all plant and animal species. These are found in the humid tropics which usually have high rainfall pattern and moderately high temperatures throughout the year. 
2. Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest – Tropical moist deciduous forests are found in the humid tropics which usually have higher rainfall pattern than tropical rain forests and moderately high temperatures throughout the year.
3. Tropical Mountain Forest – Tropical mountain forests are also called “cloud forest”, “fog forest” or “mossy forest”. These types of forests are characterized by persistent and frequent low-level cloud formations usually at the forest canopy. Because of the high level of moisture, they also have moist grounds that easily develop moss. The annual rainfall in tropical mountain forests range between 500 to 10,000 millimeters per year.
4. Tropical Dry Forest – Tropical dry forests are located at tropical and sub-tropical latitudes. They are characterized by long dry seasons which last for several months and for a majority of the year. Flora and fauna in tropical dry forests are not as rich and diverse because of the drought conditions in this type of forests.

History of Logging in the Philippines

The Philippines, like most ASEAN (Association of South East Asian Nations) member countries, are located in the tropical rain forest belt. 18th Century Philippines was characterized by climax- stage forests for most of the archipelago consisting of 7,107 islands. On the pretext that logging is the main cause of deforestation in the country, it is therefore important to briefly discuss the history of logging in the Philippines. This time line can be divided in four main periods:

1. Colonial, Wartime and Post-Wartime Period (Spanish and American [1898] occupation) – There was less focus on forest conservation since the population was small and pressure of timber utilization and demand for timber products was limited.
2. Post-Independence Period (1946) – Greater emphasis was made on the production of timber by government in an effort to accelerate development after World War II. Although the concept of selective logging of dipterocarp forest was introduced, mechanization of logging operations also allowed for harvesting of large areas.
3. Peak Logging and Concession Exploitation Period (1960s to 1970s) – In this period, harvests from the forest rose rapidly with little concern for long term sustainability of this harvest. The reasons for this were: (1) Enormous profits for multi-national companies often associated with local businessmen; (2) Export of timber products particularly Japan; and, (3) Corruption in government. In 1969, 80% of timber production were exported which contributed 33% of total exports.
4. Building a Forest Products Industry Period (1970s to 1980s) – Government started to exercise control over the wood industry while the private sector began to employ a more organized production approaches and methods. Focus, however, was still geared towards utilization than sustainable forest management.

FOREST COVER CHART

The 4 periods in the history of logging in the Philippines saw the depletion of the country’s forest cover. Please note that the “increase” in forest cover in the last 15 years is not due to additional trees actually being planted but a change in the parameters in considering and classifying forest cover. The UN-FAO reset the standard to include even small patches of trees in the total forest cover of a country.

Forest Loss and Degradation

Further research on worldwide forest cover status revealed the following information:

• 9.4 million hectares annual change in forest area;
• 14.6 million hectares annual deforestation rate; and,
• 5.2 million hectares annual reforestation rate.

CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION

Natural Causes of Deforestation 

It is a common notion that deforestation is primarily caused by the uncontrolled utilization, harvesting and extraction of forest resources such as timber and wood products. While this could be a contributory factor, there are also natural causes which are beyond the control of man. The natural causes of deforestation are the following:

1. Lightning and Forest Fires - Lightning is a massive electrostatic discharge between the surface of the earth and the clouds. Most lightning dissipate in the atmosphere but in some cases lightning flashes hit ground which is commonly referred to as a strike. If and when lightning hits the forest, especially after a dry spell, dried leaves and brushes may result in forest fires. There are four possible sources of forest fires: (1) Lightning; (2) Volcanic eruption; (3) Sparks from falling rocks; and, (4) Spontaneous combustion. Forest fires are normally very hard to control because fire fighters have a hard time reaching the base and source of the fire. However, control of forest fires can best be done by aerial water drop, construction of a fire line to contain the spread of forest fires, and natural boundaries such as rivers and streams.
2. Droughts – Drought is a prolonged and extended period wherein there is a serious deficiency in water supply and rainfall. This normally occurs in areas or regions where the average precipitation is a lot lower than normal. Droughts may affect the biodiversity of forest lands and may, in some cases, also result to forest fires.
3. Precipitation, Heavy Rains, Soil Erosion and Floods – Precipitation is a climate regime which is the product of the production of atmospheric water vapor. Water is retained in the atmosphere (mostly in dark cumulonimbus cloud formations) until such time that, with the workings of gravity, it returns to earth in the form of rainfall. Precipitation and rain is an important part of the water cycle as it purifies water in the atmosphere in a process called condensation then returns it on the surface of the earth. Rain is condensed water in the form of droplets that fall back to earth by gravity. A heavy amount of rain could cause soil erosion and landslides. Soil erosion is a process by which rocks and soil are scrapped and removed from the surface of the earth by rushing water (or by the wind) and transported to low-lying areas. Forestland that are subjected to the process of erosion by water may cause excessive sedimentation of the natural waterways, flooding and ecological collapse as the nutrient rich top soil is lost… a condition called land degradation. Flooding, however, in forest areas only occur in the forestlands located in relatively flat land. Flash flooding which normally start in upland forest areas have already claimed thousands of human lives.
4. Volcanic Eruptions – The two types of eruptions are (1) explosive eruption which is characterized gas-driven explosions which propels magma and tepha into the atmosphere and (2) effusive eruption characterized by lava fountain and fluid lava flows. Hot and fiery lava flows and the subsequent wildfire these create are also causes of deforestation.
5. Movement of Tectonic Plates, Earthquakes and Landslides – The earth’s lithosphere is composed of several tectonic plates that vary in shape and size but covers the entire surface of the earth… including the seabed. Continental drift is a scientific theory which states that these tectonic plates are in constant motion and bumping against each other. A violent crash between two tectonic plates causes earthquakes and sometimes volcanic eruptions. As a domino effect, earthquakes (especially the more violent ones) cause landslides in the mountains and forest areas. An earthquake is a result of the sudden release of energy that results in seismic waves… and seismic activity is another name for an earthquake. This is a disturbance that also leads to deforestation.
6. Typhoons, Cyclones and Hurricanes – Typhoons, cyclones and hurricanes are all the same weather condition and phenomena. These different names are used to describe the same type of weather disturbance. They are all terms to describe storms in different places. In the North Pacific and the Atlantic, the term “hurricane” is used while in the Indian Ocean and South Pacific, the terms “typhoon” and “cyclone” are used. There are six atmospheric and weather conditions that potentially build storms: (1) A low pressure area or low atmospheric pressure; (2) High humidity; (3) Warm sea surface temperature; (4) High wind circulation in the atmosphere; (5) Low vertical wind shear near the ocean surface; and, (6) High level of precipitation. These weather systems originate from the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans and have devastating effects when they make landfall. Category 3, 4 or 5 typhoons have enough wind velocity to uproot trees and flatten forests. Typhoon Yolanda is a Category 5 cyclone.
7. Tsunami and Storm Surge – Tsunamis and storm surges may be differentiated by their origin or the original cause that creates them. Violent movement of tectonic plates may result to earthquakes, volcanic eruption and underwater explosions which are the main causes of tsunamis. These seismic activities cause the beds of bodies of water (ocean, sea and lake) to shake and create waves that become bigger as they travel and radiate from their points of origin. On the other hand, storm surges are offshore rise of water level associated with low atmospheric pressure commonly called typhoons, cyclones or hurricanes. High winds whipped up by storms carry these waves to the shore as the typhoons and hurricanes make landfall. These waves, also called tidal waves, created by either a tsunami or storm surge have devastating effects when they hit land. Low-lying forest areas can be wiped out by these waves causing massive deforestation.
8. Tornados - Tornados, often referred to as twisters or cyclones, occur when cumulonimbus or cumulus clouds gets in contact with the earth’s surface linked by a violently rotating column of wind, dust and debris. Most tornados have speeds that are under 200 kph but in some extreme cases are over 300 kph. In extreme cases, tornados can uproot trees and deforest large areas.
9. Climate Change – Among the natural causes of deforestation already mentioned, climate change tops them all on account of its lasting effect. Climate change is the significant change in the statistical distribution of weather conditions and patterns over a long period of time ranging from decades to millions of years. Climate change is caused by factors such as (1) changes in the amount of solar radiation that hit the surface of the earth, (2) natural biotic processes which are caused by interrelations among and between living organisms, and (3) the movement of tectonic plates. Climate change is often referred to as “global warming.” This may seem to be a misnomer since climate change could either be an up or down change in global temperature. These changes in climate and temperature seriously affect the ecosystems… to include forest ecosystems. The natural causes influencing climate change are also the factors that affect deforestation (previously discussed). Climate change could therefore be considered as the baseline cause of deforestation.

Anthropogenic Causes of Deforestation

Deforestation is a result and a consequence of over-harvesting, over-extraction and over-utilization of natural resources. Anthropogenic causes of deforestation are those which are the direct results of human activities. These are the factors that can be controlled… compared to natural causes which cannot be managed and controlled in their occurrence and magnitude.

1. Land Use Conversion – Land use conversion is the most significant cause of deforestation. Agriculture and cash crops plantation establishment, considered to be a more economically viable business activity than tree plantation establishment, has been the single most common land use conversion. Vast tracts of forest lands have been converted to palm oil plantation in recent years. Conversion of forest lands to residential housing purpose has also been very common especially in countries where real property development is a lucrative business. A lot of countries have also encouraged industrialization especially traditional agriculture economies. Forest areas have been cleared to develop and establish areas dedicated for commercial and industrial use. Infrastructure development particularly the construction of roads, have also caused deforestation.
2. Mining Activities – Mining is the process of extracting ore, minerals and precious and semi-precious metals from the ground. Most mineral-rich areas are located in forest lands. Prior to the extraction of these natural resources, clear-cutting of the forest becomes imperative. This, however, contributes to deforestation. Precious metal mining activities require tunneling. Although this contributes a lesser degree of deforestation, the construction support facilities (such as mining camps, housing for mining communities, etc.) also contributes to deforestation.
3. Energy Exploration and Development – In the field of energy development, there is a big trade-off between forest preservation and the building and construction of hydro-electric facilities. Most countries, the Philippines included, chose to favor the provision of energy as a critical and essential building block to national economic development. We cannot make a judgment on the propriety of this economic development strategy… we can only hope that safety nets are also provided to the upland communities severely affected in the building of hydro-electric dams. Right or wrong, justified or not, energy exploration and development also causes deforestation.
4. Logging – Commercial logging is a catalyst of economic development. This, however, needs to be sustainable. The wood industry provides livelihood opportunities for some 20 million in the Philippines. The forests also serve as home to around 12 million indigenous peoples. With an estimated 20 million people dependent on the forest and wood industry for livelihood opportunities and employment, a total logging ban will have a negative socio-economic impact in the country. Selective logging, as a strategy, together with the expansion of the tenurial instrument system should be the answer. This, however, is not a guarantee. Government, the DENR in particular, should do its best to ascertain that only qualified individuals or groups with proven records in forest management are granted tenurial instruments. While illegal logging contributes to forest degradation, clear cutting type of logging can cause deforestation.
5. Fuelwood Collection – A majority of rural population (especially those who have live in the outskirts of town and community centers, and the upland communities) still use wood to cook food and provide heat during cold weather conditions. Firewood gathering and collection contributes to the depletion of tree cover. Forest cover depletion is more pronounced in lightly wooded areas since it necessitates the cutting down of trees. In thick forests where a lot of combustible materials are available (such as dead twigs and branches that could be found on the forest floor), the occurrence of tree felling for firewood purposes is less. Wood gatherers and collectors, however, have a tendency to cut down growing trees which are more accessible. Charcoal-making is also a livelihood activity among upland communities. These practices (wood gathering and charcoal making) disturb the growth cycle of the forest and contributes to deforestation.
6. Fish Farming – The establishment of fish ponds in the upland depends largely on the topography of the area. “U”-shaped valleys ideal although some degree of earth-moving is required. Civil engineering intervention by way of building compacted structures (mostly made of soil and other readily available filling materials in the area) along the open side of this “U”-shaped topography. Rainwater is then collected to submerge these areas but not after harvesting the trees and other forest resources. This type land use conversion, however, changes the geophysical biodiversity, character and condition of the area and contributes to deforestation.
7. Plantation of Illegal Drugs – Developing plantations for Cannabis, also known as “marijuana”, is also a contributory factor to deforestation. The Cannabis plant has medicinal value but is largely viewed as psychoactive drug which causes addiction. For this reason it is a banned substance and planting cannabis is illegal. Although there are countries who have legalized selling of marijuana for medical purposes, most countries banned it. 162 million people, or 4% of the world’s adult population have tried marijuana and 22.5 million people use it daily for medical reasons. Banned drugs command a high price and it is for this reason that some people are inclined to establish plantations for marijuana and poppy. On the other hand, poppy seeds contain morphine and alkaloid which are the main ingredients in processing and chemically producing heroin for medical use in some countries and for the illegal drug trade. Heroin is a banned substance but is being illegally produced for 1st World markets. Forest areas are also being cleared for the purpose of establishing poppy plantation which also contributes to deforestation.
8. Pests and Diseases – Whether to consider pest and diseases are anthropogenic causes of deforestation is largely debatable. Some may argue that these are natural causes and not man-made. The debate may continue on this issue but one thing is for certain… pest and diseases, especially those that are widespread and affect large tracts of forestland, are contributory factors to deforestation.
9. War Strategy – Deforestation has become a military war strategy. In the late 1960s and 1970s, the US got involved in the Vietnam War. The predominant landscape in Vietnam and neighboring Laos PDR and Cambodia was characterized by thick tropical rain forests. In a war situation, the forest, with its canopy, was the best camouflage to hide military activities and operations. The communist North Vietnam supporting the Vietcong movement against the US and South Vietnam used these thick forest canopies to their best advantage. As a strategy, the US military establishment sprayed the forest areas in Vietnam and the areas bordering Cambodia and Laos PDR with Agent Orange. Agent Orange or Herbicide Orange is a herbicide and defoliant which effectively deforested forest lands therefore taking away the forest cover of the enemy and force them to go to urban centers. This also effectively cut the support base of the communist insurgents made up of peasants living in the rural areas. The long-term effects of Agent Orange cannot be established up to now after the US Military declared official and non-official studies on this as classified information. 20% of the forests of Vietnam were sprayed. Deforestation, however, is quite obvious in the areas where Agent Orange was sprayed.

Other Causes of Deforestation

There are other causes of deforestation which are basically anthropogenic too. Their level of influence and contribution to deforestation cannot be ascertained and remain largely relative. Please note that these are additional causes of deforestation in the Philippine setting and may not apply to other countries. These are:

1. Population Growth – Population growth or overpopulation exerts pressure on land use. As the population grows bigger, (a) more land is dedicated to agriculture for food security purposes, (b) land is allocated to establish more housing and residential units that are needed to house and settle the additional population, (c) more business and livelihood establishment are constructed and established to provide employment for the additional population, (d) more roads and bridges will have to be constructed to provide mobility and access between growing communities, (e) more power and energy will be needed to provide and support the growing communities and industries with the necessary utilities (just to name a few.) Unfortunately, the legislative measure that addresses the problem of population growth in the Philippines is still pending (for decision on its constitutionality) in the Supreme Court. Republic Act 10354 or the Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Law is an Act providing for a National Policy on Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health.
2. Graft and Corruption – Graft and corruption exist all over the world. It is just more rampant and evident in developing economies such as the Philippines. Agencies tasked with the protection and preservation of natural resources are, more often than not, the initiators of graft and corrupt practices for money consideration. The propensity of businesses to gain more profits also fuels this practice. An honest-to-goodness implementation and enforcement of existing laws, rules and regulations by government should at the very least limit or lessen graft and corruption.
3. Government Policies – Public policies are tools of government to spur economic growth and development and to gain the trust and confidence of the citizenry. When there are inconsistencies and contradictions in public policies or there is a selective application of public policies, these create inequities and send the wrong signals to the population. The purposes and objectives of such public policies are more often not accomplished in this manner. A glaring example of conflicts in Philippine upland public policy are two contrasting Executive Orders (EO 23, declaring a moratorium on the cutting and harvesting of timber in the natural and residual forests and creating the Anti-Illegal Logging Task Force, and EO 79, institutionalizing and implementing reforms in the Philippine mining sector providing policies and guidelines to ensure environmental protection and responsible mining in the utilization of mineral resources.) These EOs [a] encourage the extraction of non-renewable resources (EO 79) and bans the harvesting of renewable resources (EO23), [b] encourages clear cutting of forest areas (EO79) and bans the selective logging of timber products (EO 23), [c] hastily crafted an IRR (Implementing Rules and Regulations) which critics claim is less advantageous to government for EO 79 and never bothered to draft an IRR for EO 23 (if there was one, nobody in the wood industry comprising some 20 million people has seen this draft), [d] the provision of marginal income for mining workers (EO 79) and the non-provision of safety nets for the wood industry workers (EO 23)… to mention some glaring disparity. Selective and preferential treatment of the different industry sectors in the country will only fan distrust for government.
4. Livelihood Activities of the Upland Dwellers – Upland land use for livelihood purposes such as slash and burn agriculture or kaingin and swidden or shifting agriculture remain insignificant as contributors to deforestation. The common practice is the abandonment of the area after it is no longer economical to till. The act of abandoning such area will trigger ecological succession and, in time, return the area to a climax stage. Efforts, however, should be made to encourage and develop other forms and means of livelihood activities to cushion the effects of soil degradation caused by these livelihood activities in the uplands.

CONCLUSION

Basis for the Conclusion

My research brought me to several significant facts and information. Commercial agriculture is the most dominant driver of deforestation followed by subsistence agriculture. Next is timber harvesting, extraction and logging which are the causes of forest degradation, followed by fuelwood gathering and collection, charcoal production, and livestock grazing. The other causes mentioned in this report are considered negligible although still contributory to deforestation and forest degradation.

Additionally, allow me to mention the following research information also gathered: (Deforestation: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation) “According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) secretariat, the overwhelming direct cause of deforestation is agriculture. Subsistence farming is responsible for 48% of the deforestation; commercial agriculture is responsible for 32% of deforestation; logging is responsible for 14% of deforestation and fuel wood removals make up 5% of deforestation.

Experts do not agree whether industrial logging is an important contributor to global deforestation. Some argue that poor people are more likely to clear forest because they have no alternatives, others that the poor lack the ability to pay for the materials and labour needed to clear forest. One study found that population increases due to high fertility rates were a primary driver of tropical deforestation in only 8% of cases. 

Other causes of contemporary deforestation may include corruption of government institutions, the inequitable distribution of wealth and power, population growth and overpopulation, and urbanization. Globalization is often viewed as another root cause of deforestation, though there are cases in which the impacts of globalization (new flows of labor, capital, commodities, and ideas) have promoted localized forest recovery.”

This report has clearly made the distinction between natural and anthropogenic (or man-made) causes of deforestation. It should be noted that natural causes are as numerous as the man-made causes. The only difference is the exercise of human control over these causes. While there is less man could do over natural causes, the anthropogenic causes can distinctly be influence by him. Although there are natural processes akin to nature, it should be noted further that natural causes of deforestation are indirectly influenced by human activity.

CONCLUSION

Having mentioned, defined and described all the causes of deforestation (natural or man-made) it becomes evident that not only logging (commercial, industrial, illegal, selective, etc.) causes deforestation. Again, logging contributes only 14% to deforestation. It is therefore a WRONG ASSUMPTION to pin the blame entirely on commercial logging activities as the only driver of deforestation. 

Expanding the tenurial instrument system, as a sustainable forest management strategy, will further reduce this percentage (14% contribution to deforestation of logging activities) provided, however, that the government, the private sector, the upland communities and other forest stakeholders are dead serious in their commitment towards reforestation and preservation of our forest resources.

We could all be happy to know that nature, through ecological succession (primary or secondary), will eventually bring back our ecological landscape to a climax stage. The least we could do is lean back on the pressure (therefore, utilization of natural resources) being applied to our environment through a more judicious and maximum utilization of material resources. This way, disturbances will be minimized and we can help nature’s natural processes (ecological succession) to take over.

REFERENCES:

• Swidden Agriculture (http://www.nikeprogramme.org/index.php/ik-database/researches/82-knowledge-we-wrote/112-swidden-farming.html)
• Slash and Burn Farming (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slash-and-burn)
• Executive Order No. 23 (http://www.gov.ph/2011/02/01/executive-order-no-23-4/)
• Executive Order No. 79 (http://www.gov.ph/2012/07/06/executive-order-no-79-s-2012/)
• Republic Act No. 10354 (http://pcw.gov.ph/law/republic-act-10354)
• Agent Orange (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agent_Orange)
• Cloud Forest (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_forest)
• Broadleaf Forest (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_dry_broadleaf_forests)
• Cannabis (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)
• Opium (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opium)
• Storm Surge (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm_surge)
• Tsunami (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami)
• Cyclone (http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/cyclone.html)
• Cyclone (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclone)
• Typhoon (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoon)
• Plate Tectonics (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_tectonics)
• Volcanic Eruption) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_volcanic_eruptions
• Rain (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain)
• Soil (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_horizon)
• Flood (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood)
• Drought (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drought)
• Wildfire (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire)
• Natural Causes and Effects of Deforestation (https://sites.google.com/site/earthjoggerz/natural-causes-and-effects-of-deforestation)
• Biotic Components (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotic_component)
• Biotic Factors (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotic_factors)
• Environment (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment)
• Climate Change (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change)
• Deforestation (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation)
• Causes of Deforestation (http://www.preservearticles.com/2012021623379/what-are-the-major-causes-of-deforestation.html)